|
Two major innovations which both appeared in eastern Canada at
approximately the same time were knowledge of pottery vessel
manufacture from the south and the bow and arrow weapon system from
the northeast. Pottery, which is fashioned in a plastic state and
then fired to a stone-like hardness, is especially useful to
archaeologists as it leaves a particularly sensitive record of
cultural relationships and developments. Pottery characteristics
of form, motif, and tool impression variety can be used as
chronological indicators and cultural identifiers. While pottery
was independently invented in a number of places around the world,
the earliest pottery in North America comes from what is now the
southeastern United States where it was introduced more than 5,000
years ago. Its ultimate place of origin was likely in South
America. As pottery appears approximately 1,000 years earlier in
eastern North America than southwestern North America, its route
of diffusion was probably through the chain of islands in the
Caribbean Sea called the Antilles. These islands acted as a bridge
between northeastern South America and Florida. In contrast to
pottery the bow and arrow was an Asiatic innovation which appears
to have entered the Western Hemisphere with Early Palaeo-Eskimo
culture
(Wright 1995: Chapter 21).
Both of these technological advances eventually spread across much
of North America.
On the east coast of the Maritime provinces the archaeological
record of Late Maritime culture has been partially obliterated
by a sinking coastline. There is evidence, however, that a burial
cult originating in the Ohio Valley was exerting influences on the
local populations prior to 500 B.C. Such influences, associated
with prescribed mortuary practices, likely arrived in the Maritimes
via the St. Lawrence River and included burial mound construction
and exotic Ohio Valley objects used as grave offerings to the
deceased.
Moving westward into the interior of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
region, Late Great Lakes-St. Lawrence culture was represented by
a number of regional pottery vessel style complexes as well as
other traits. All of these regional cultural complexes, however,
appear to have developed out of the preceding Middle Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence culture of Period III. Mortuary ceremonialism, once again
originating in the Ohio Valley, appears as early as 600 B.C. and
subsequent developments eventually led to a fluorescence of burial
mound ceremonialism in the Rice Lake region of southeastern
Southern Ontario around 2,000 years ago. At this time silver from
the Cobalt area in Northern Ontario was added to the 7,000-year-old
copper metalworking tradition and was widely traded to the south.
Throughout most of Québec north of the St. Lawrence River
Late Eastern Shield culture retained the earlier Middle Shield
culture way of life and, while the bow and arrow was adopted,
pottery vessels were largely rejected except along the southern
margins of the Canadian Shield. Late Western Shield culture
(Laurel), occupying extreme western Québec, Northern
Ontario, much of Manitoba, a small northeastern portion of
Saskatchewan, and the northern margins of adjacent states, is
differentiated from its eastern neighbours in the Shield by the
whole-hearted adoption of pottery and a major change in the
nature of the chipped stone tool industry. Local populations
along the Minnesota-Ontario border became involved in southern
burial mound ceremonialism and would be responsible for the
construction of the largest earthen structures in pre-European
Canada.
Bison continued to represent the staff of life for Late Plains
culture and earlier traits, like the use of bison jumps and
pounds, the dog travois, tipis, pemmican production, and
medicine wheel ritual were not only retained but elaborated upon.
Around 2,000 years ago pottery was introduced from the east but
never became a significant trait of Late Plains culture. It is
speculated that the bow and arrow weapon system was also
introduced to the Plains from the east, possibly late in Period
III from Middle Shield culture or from the subsequent Late
Western Shield culture. Pit house villages of Late Plateau
culture increased in size and complexity, particularly so in
the Lillooet region where some have argued for the existence
of ranked societies. While a reliance upon salmon continued
from the preceding period there is evidence that after 500 B.C.
plant foods, such as bitterroot, mountain potato, wild onion,
and balsam root became increasingly important.
Throughout most of Period IV, developments in Late West Coast
culture clearly anticipate the historically documented cultural
pattern of the West Coast. Large plank house villages become
common. The shaping of stone implements and ornaments by pecking
and polishing increases in popularity. There is also evidence
for an intensification of the processes responsible for the
appearance of socially ranked societies and an associated
increase in warfare. Around the end of Period IV the bow and
arrow was introduced to the coast from the Canadian Plateau.
The most dramatic event within Late Northwest Interior culture
was its expansion to the east into the barrengrounds and
northern forest margins of the eastern Mackenzie and southern
Keewatin districts of the Northwest Territories as well as into
the northern margins of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.
Middle Palaeo-Eskimo culture was concentrated in an extensive
region centred on Baffin Island during Period IV. While sharing
many traits with their Early Palaeo-Eskimo ancestors they
differed in a number of respects such as constructing
semi-subterranean winter houses and shaping many stone tools
by grinding. On some sites permafrost conditions have preserved
objects manufactured from driftwood and provide a glimpse of a
rich woodworking industry that included microblade and burin
handles, kayak and sled parts, and other objects not
encountered in the usual archaeological deposits.
For the most part, the cultural developments of Period IV
consisted of an intensification and elaboration of developments
identified in the preceding Period III. Cultural regionalism
continued apace. For the first time, however, new burial
ceremonialism that included the construction of earth burial
mounds was added to the earlier mortuary systems. Such
influences had their ultimate origins to the south but by the
time they reached eastern Canada they had been modified to
accommodate local needs. It is speculated that mortuary
elaboration in both the Rice Lake and the Rainy River regions
of Ontario was supported by the invention of methods that
permitted the preservation of wild rice. As production of a
surplus of food in the form of parched rice equalled wealth
it appears to have resulted in status inequalities. The
evidence for the existence of ascribed status, with its
accompanying social inequality, was very local and alien,
as a whole, to both Late Great Lakes-St. Lawrence culture
and Late Western Shield culture. It was only temporarily
maintained in the east but continued into Period V in the
Rainy River region of Northern Ontario.
The foregoing highlights the point that while cultural
influences did range across the enormous expanses of North
America via the process of diffusion, regional cultural forces
moulded the external influences in distinctively local ways. No
region of Canada was unaffected by cultural diffusion, whether
the innovations originated in South America or Asia, and
whether they pertained to technology or cosmological belief
systems.
|
